20. Medication-Induced Movement Disorders and Other Adverse Effects of Medication
20.1. Neuroleptic-Induced Parkinsonism
20.2. Other Medication-Induced Parkinsonism
20.3. Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
20.4. Medication-Induced Acute Dystonia
20.5. Medication-Induced Acute Akathisia
20.6. Tardive Dyskinesia
20.7. Tardive Dystonia
20.8. Tardive Akathisia
20.9. Medication-Induced Postural Tremor
20.10. Other Medication-Induced Movement Disorder
20.11. Antidepressant Discontinuation Syndrome
Medication Induced movement disorders are included in Section II because of
their frequent importance in 1) the management by medication of mental disorders or other
medical conditions and 2) the differential diagnosis of mental disorders (e.g., anxiety
disorder versus neuroleptic-induced akathisia; malignant catatonia versus neuroleptic
malignant syndrome). Although these movement disorders are labeled "medication induced,"
it is often difficult to establish the causal relationship between medication exposure
and the development of the movement disorder, especially because some of these
movement disorders also occur in the absence of medication exposure. The conditions
and problems listed in this chapter are not mental disorders.
The term neuroleptic is becoming outdated because it highlights the propensity of antipsychotic
medications to cause abnormal movements, and it is being replaced with the
term antipsychotic in many contexts. Nevertheless, the term neuroleptic remains appropriate
in this context. Although newer antipsychotic medications may be less likely to cause
some medication-induced movement disorders, those disorders still occur. Neuroleptic
medications include so-called conventional, "typical," or first-generation antipsychotic
agents (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, fluphenazine); "atypical" or second-generation
antipsychotic agents (e.g., clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine); certain dopamine
receptor-blocking drugs used in the treatment of symptoms such as nausea and gastroparesis
(e.g., prochlorperazine, promethazine, trimethobenzamide, thiethylperazine,
metoclopramide); and amoxapine, which is marketed as an antidepressant.
332.1 (G21.11 ) Neuroleptic-Induced Parkinsonism
332.1 (G21.19) Other Medication-Induced Parkinsonism
Parkinsonian tremor, muscular rigidity, akinesia (i.e., loss of movement or difficulty initiating
movement), or bradykinesia (i.e., slowing movement) developing within a few
weeks of starting or raising the dosage of a medication (e.g., a neuroleptic) or after reducing
the dosage of a medication used to treat extrapyramidal symptoms.
333.92 (G21.0) Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Although neuroleptic malignant syndrome is easily recognized in its classic full-blown
form, it is often heterogeneous in onset, presentation, progression, and outcome. The clinical
features described below are those considered most important in making the diagnosis
of neuroleptic malignant syndrome based on consensus recommendations.
Patients have generally been exposed to a dopamine antagonist within 72 hours prior to
symptom development. Hyperthermia (>100.4°F or >38.0°C on at least two occasions,
measured orally), associated with profuse diaphoresis, is a distinguishing feature of neuroleptic
malignant syndrome, setting it apart from other neurological side effects of antipsychotic
medications. Extreme elevations in temperature, reflecting a breakdown in
central thermoregulation, are more likely to support the diagnosis of neuroleptic malignant
syndrome. Generalized rigidity, described as "lead pipe" in its most severe form and
usually unresponsive to antiparkinsonian agents, is a cardinal feature of the disorder and
may be associated with other neurological symptoms (e.g., tremor, sialorrhea, akinesia,
dystonia, trismus, myoclonus, dysarthria, dysphagia, rhabdomyolysis). Creatine kinase
elevation of at least four times the upper limit of normal is commonly seen. Changes in
mental status, characterized by delirium or altered consciousness ranging from stupor to
coma, are often an early sign. Affected individuals may appear alert but dazed and unresponsive,
consistent with catatonic stupor. Autonomic activation and instability—manifested
by tachycardia (rate >25% above baseline), diaphoresis, blood pressure elevation
(systolic or diastolic >25% above baseline) or fluctuation (>20 mmHg diastolic change or
>25 mmHg systolic change within 24 hours), urinary incontinence, and pallor—may be
seen at any time but provide an early clue to the diagnosis. Tachypnea (rate >50% above
baseline) is common, and respiratory distress—resulting from metabolic acidosis, hypermetabolism,
chest wall restriction, aspiration pneumonia, or pulmonary emboli—can occur
and lead to sudden respiratory arrest.
A workup, including laboratory investigation, to exclude other infectious, toxic, metabolic,
and neuropsychiatric etiologies or complications is essential (see the section "Differential
Diagnosis" later in this discussion). Although several laboratory abnormalities
are associated with neuroleptic malignant syndrome, no single abnormality is specific to
the diagnosis. Individuals with neuroleptic malignant syndrome may have leukocytosis,
metabolic acidosis, hypoxia, decreased serum iron concentrations, and elevations in serum
muscle enzymes and catecholamines. Findings from cerebrospinal fluid analysis and
neuroimaging studies are generally normal, whereas electroencephalography shows generalized
slowing. Autopsy findings in fatal cases have been nonspecific and variable, depending
on complications.
333.72 (G24.02) Medication-Induced Acute Dystonia Abnormal and prolonged contraction of the muscles of the eyes (oculogyric crisis), head, neck (torticollis or retrocollis), limbs, or trunk developing within a few days of starting or raising the dosage of a medication (such as a neuroleptic) or after reducing the dosage of a medication used to treat extrapyramidal symptoms.
333.99 (G25.71) Medication-Induced Acute Akathisia
Subjective complaints of restlessness, often accompanied by observed excessive movements
(e.g., fidgety movements of the legs, rocking from foot to foot, pacing, inability to sit
or stand still), developing within a few weeks of starting or raising the dosage of a medication
(such as a neuroleptic) or after reducing the dosage of a medication used to treat extrapyramidal
symptoms.
333.85 (G24.01) Tardive Dyskinesia
Involuntary athetoid or choreiform movements (lasting at least a few weeks) generally of
the tongue, lower face and jaw, and extremities (but sometimes involving the pharyngeal,
diaphragmatic, or trunk muscles) developing in association with the use of a neuroleptic
medication for at least a few months.
Symptoms may develop after a shorter period of medication use in older persons. In
some patients, movements of this type may appear after discontinuation, or after change
or reduction in dosage, of neuroleptic medications, in which case the condition is called
neuroleptic withdrawal-emergent dyskinesia. Because withdrawal-emergent dyskinesia is
usually time-limited, lasting less than 4-8 weeks, dyskinesia that persists beyond this window
is considered to be tardive dyskinesia.
333.72 (G24.09) Tardive Dystonia
333.99 (G25.71 ) Tardive Akathisia
Tardive syndrome involving other types of movement problems, such as dystonia or
akathisia, which are distinguished by their late emergence in the course of treatment and
their potential persistence for months to years, even in the face of neuroleptic discontinuation
or dosage reduction.
333.1 (G25.1) Medication-Induced Postural Tremor
Fine tremor (usually in the range of 8-12 Hz) occurring during attempts to maintain a posture
and developing in association with the use of medication (e.g., lithium, antidepressants,
valproate). This tremor is very similar to the tremor seen with anxiety, caffeine, and
other stimulants.
333.99 (G25.79) Other Medication-Induced Movement Disorder
This category is for medication-induced movement disorders not captured by any of the
specific disorders listed above. Examples include 1) presentations resembling neuroleptic
malignant syndrome that are associated with medications other than neuroleptics and
2) other medication-induced tardive conditions
995.29 (T43.205A) Initial encounter
995.29 (T43.205D) Subsequent encounter
995.29 (T43.205S) Sequelae
Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome is a set of symptoms that can occur after an
abrupt cessation (or marked reduction in dose) of an antidepressant medication that was
taken continuously for at least 1 month. Symptoms generally begin within 2-4 days and
typically include specific sensory, somatic, and cognitive-emotional manifestations. Frequently
reported sensory and somatic symptoms include flashes of lights, "electric shock"
sensations, nausea, and hyperresponsivity to noises or lights. Nonspecific anxiety and
feelings of dread may also be reported. Symptoms are alleviated by restarting the same
medication or starting a different medication that has a similar mechanism of action—
for example, discontinuation symptoms after withdrawal from a serotonin-norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitor may be alleviated by starting a tricyclic antidepressant. To qualify
as antidepressant discontinuation syndrome, the symptoms should not have been present
before the antidepressant dosage was reduced and are not better explained by another
mental disorder (e.g., manic or hypomanie episode, substance intoxication, substance
withdrawal, somatic symptom disorder).
Discontinuation symptoms may occur following treatment with tricyclic antidepressants
(e.g., imipramine, amitriptyline, desipramine), serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine,
paroxetine, sertraline), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine, selegiline,
pargyline). The incidence of this syndrome depends on the dosage and half-life of the
medication being taken, as well as the rate at which the medication is tapered. Short-acting
medications that are stopped abruptly rather than tapered gradually may pose the greatest
risk. The short-acting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) paroxetine is the
agent most commonly associated with discontinuation symptoms, but such symptoms occur
for all types of antidepressants.
Unlike withdrawal syndromes associated with opioids, alcohol, and other substances
of abuse, antidepressant discontinuation syndrome has no pathognomonic symptoms. Instead,
the symptoms tend to be vague and variable and typically begin 2-A days after the
last dose of the antidepressant. For SSRIs (e.g., paroxetine), symptoms such as dizziness,
ringing in the ears, "electric shocks in the head," an inability to sleep, and acute anxiety are
described. The antidepressant use prior to discontinuation must not have incurred hypomania
or euphoria (i.e., there should be confidence that the discontinuation syndrome is
not the result of fluctuations in mood stability associated with the previous treatment).
The antidepressant discontinuation syndrome is based solely on pharmacological factors
and is not related to the reinforcing effects of an antidepressant. Also, in the case of stimulant
augmentation of an antidepressant, abrupt cessation may result in stimulant withdrawal
symptoms (see "Stimulant Withdrawal" in the chapter "Substance-Related and
Addictive Disorders") rather than the antidepressant discontinuation syndrome described
here.
The prevalence of antidepressant discontinuation syndrome is unknown but is thought to vary according to the dosage prior to discontinuation, the half-life and receptor-binding affinity of the medication, and possibly the individual's genetically influenced rate of metabolism for this medication.